1 Treat the cause: relieve the airway obstruction
2 Administer 100% O2 with full facial CPAP mask. In addition to relieving upper airway obstruction, CPAP may reduce oedema formation by increasing mean intrathoracic pressure and minimise alveolar collapse by increasing functional residual capacity, improving gas exchange and reducing the work of breathing
3 Nurse the patient sitting upright
4 If there is fulminant pulmonary oedema with critical hypoxaemia, tracheal intubation and mechanical ventilation with PEEP are necessary. Less severe hypoxia responds to supplemental oxygen and ? or non-invasive ventilation, or PAP
5 Intravenous opioids may help reduce subjective dyspnoea
6 Chest radiography may exclude other complications of difficult airway management and causes of hypoxia (gastric aspiration, pre-existing infection, pneumothorax, barotrauma, pulmonary collapse)
7 Frank haemoptysis may necessitate direct laryngoscopy and ? or flexible bronchoscopy
8 Diuretics are often administered, but their efficacy is unproven梗阻后肺水肿的处理
1.病因治疗：解除气道梗阻。
Human & other factors
Inadequate equipment
Inadequate skilled assistance
Patient position
Access to airway e.g. dressings? gastric
tubes ? rigid fixators
Interruption of oxygen supply during
patient transfer
Communication difficulties
(e.g. language, mental capacity)
Removal of oxygen by agitated or
uncooperative patient 表1 拔管时导致动脉氧饱和度降低和氧储备的减少的因素