2. 危险因素
(1)影响局麻药神经毒性最重要的是在蛛网膜下隙神经周围的局麻药浓度,其主要因素为:
① 给药剂量,是最重要的因素。
② 蛛网膜下隙阻滞使用的局麻药的浓度。
③ 影响局麻药在蛛网膜下隙分布的因素,如重比重溶液(高渗葡萄糖)、蛛网膜下隙阻滞中选择更接近尾端的间隙、注药速度缓慢等,将导致局麻药的分布受限而增加其在尾端的积聚,使相应部位神经周围局麻药浓度增加,导致对神经的毒性作用。
(2)局麻药的种类:与布比卡因和丁卡因相比,利多卡因神经毒性发生率更高。
(3)血管收缩剂,肾上腺素本身无脊髓损伤作用,但研究结果表明蛛网膜下隙阻滞药中添加肾上腺素可加重蛛网膜下隙应用利多卡因和2-氯普鲁卡因引起的神经损伤。
3. 预防
(1)穿刺及置管时操作轻柔,避免反复穿刺。
(2)对有止血障碍及接受抗凝治疗的患者尽量避免椎管内阻滞。
① 对止血功能异常的患者,应根据血小板计数、凝血酶原时间(PT)、活化部分凝血活酶时间(aPTT)、纤维蛋白原定量等指标对患者的止血状态做出评估,仔细权衡施行椎管内阻滞的利益和风险后做出个体化的麻醉选择。有关椎管内阻滞血小板计数的安全低限,目前尚不明确。一般认为,血小板低于50×109/L禁止施行蛛网膜下隙阻滞,血小板低于80×109/L禁止施行硬膜外阻滞。
② 关于围术期应用抗凝或抗血小板药物的患者,椎管内血肿的预防原则可参阅《抗凝或抗血小板药物治疗患者接受区域麻醉与镇痛管理的专家共识》。
(3)产科患者凝血异常和血小板减少症较常见,其麻醉前血小板下降的速度与血小板计数同样重要,血小板进行性下降提示椎管内血肿的风险较大。
4. 治疗
减少脑脊液泄漏,恢复正常脑脊液压力为治疗重点。
(1)硬脊膜穿破后发生轻度到中度头痛的患者,采用支持治疗,如卧床休息、注意补液和口服镇痛药治疗,有些患者毋须特殊处理,头痛能自行缓解。
(2)硬脊膜穿破后发生中度到重度头痛等待自行缓解的病例,需给予药物治疗。常用咖啡因250mg静脉注射或300mg口服,需反复给药。口服醋氮酰胺(Diamox) 250mg,每日3次,连续3d。
(3)硬膜外隙充填法:这是治疗硬脊膜穿破后头痛最有效的方法,适用于症状严重且经24h~48h保守治疗难以缓解的病例。由粗针(如硬膜外隙穿刺针)引起的硬脊膜穿破后的头痛症状多较严重,持续时间长,往往需要进行多次硬膜外隙充填后症状方能逐渐缓解。
① 方法:患者取侧卧位,穿刺点选择在硬膜穿破的节段或下一个节段。穿刺针到达硬膜外隙后,将拟充填液体以1ml/3s的速度缓慢注入硬膜外隙,直至患者背部、臀部或颈部出现饱胀不适感,两耳突然听觉灵敏或突然眼前一亮,均为颅内压恢复正常的反应。患者保持卧位1h~2h有助于症状的缓解,在这段时间内静脉滴注1000ml的液体往往是有益的。通常建议患者在操作后24h~48h避免抬举动作、Valsalva动作以及空中旅行,以减少补片破裂的风险。
② 充填液体的选择:
a. 无菌自体血10ml〜20ml。能获得立即恢复颅内压和解除头痛的效果,有引起注射部位硬脊膜外隙粘连及继发感染之虑。大量临床观察表明,硬膜外隙血填充是足够安全的。禁忌证和风险与其他硬膜外操作一致(感染、出血、神经损伤等),目前尚无证据证明禁用于艾滋病患者。尽管仍有争议,但是硬膜外隙血填充不会对之后的硬膜外操作成功与否产生显著影响。
b. 其他替代血液的填充物,通常使用的物质为中分子量右旋糖酐、羟乙基淀粉、明胶和纤维蛋白胶,可以提供长久的硬膜外压塞和(或)封闭脑脊膜裂缝的作用。其临床应用仅见于案例报告和小样本队列研究。
c.单次或持续硬膜外隙注入生理盐水(通常是20ml~30ml)可以缓解头痛症状,但复发率高,应用价值有限。
(4)在综合治疗时可以配合针刺印堂、太阳、头维、丝足空及合谷穴治疗。
1. 腰骶干损伤
腰骶干损伤是在骶翼处胎儿头部压迫腰骶干所引起,临床表现为踝部背屈和外翻无力(垂足),小腿外侧和足背感觉减弱。其危险因素包括:产程过长、巨大胎儿、骶髂关节突出的后部宽的扁平骨盆、中位产钳胎头旋转后。
2. 腓总神经麻痹
截石位时,脚蹬双腿位置摆放不佳,腓总神经受腓骨头压迫所引起。临床表现类似于腰骶干损伤,但感觉减弱的区域仅限于足背。
3. 感觉异常性股痛
这是最常见的产科相关神经损伤,是位于腹股沟韧带下方的侧方股皮神经受压所致。表现为大腿前侧方的上部感觉减弱。其危险因素为截石位或McRobert手法时髋关节曲屈时间过长。
4. 股神经麻痹
股神经麻痹是由股神经在骨盆内受胎头压迫或手术牵拉所引起,也可在腹股沟韧带下方由于髋关节过分弯曲而受压。临床表现为股四头肌无力,在上楼梯时症状最为明显,常常伴有延伸到踝部的细长型感觉丧失区。
5. 闭孔神经麻痹
闭孔神经麻痹是最少见的产科相关神经损伤,由于闭孔内神经受压引起。表现为大腿内上部感觉减弱和髋关节内收及旋转无力。
以上产科相关的神经麻痹,数周到数月后神经功能均可恢复。此外,为控制严重的子宫出血而进行的血管结扎可能阻断脊髓圆锥和马尾神经的血供,从而导致永久性的神经损伤。 参考文献
[1] Tarkkila PJ, Kaukinen S. Complications during spinal anesthesia: a prospective study. Reg Anesth. 1991;16(2):101-6.
[2] Carpenter RL, Caplan RA, Brown DL, et al. Incidence and risk factors for side effects of spinal anesthesia. Anesthesiology. 1992;76(6):906-16.
[3] Curatolo M, Scaramozzino P, Venuti FS, et al. Factors associated with hypotension and bradycardia after epidural blockade. Anesth Analg. 1996 Nov;83(5):1033-40.
[4] Fanelli G, Casati A, Berti M, et al. Incidence of hypotension and bradycardia during integrated epidural/general anaesthesia. An epidemiologic observational study on 1200 consecutive patients. Italian Study Group on Integrated Anaesthesia. Minerva Anestesiol. 1998;64(7-8):313-9.
[5] Hartmann B, Junger A, Klasen J, et al. The incidence and risk factors for hypotension after spinal anesthesia induction: an analysis with automated data collection. Anesth Analg. 2002;94(6):1521-9.
[6] Lesser JB, Sanborn KV, Valskys R, et al. Severe bradycardia during spinal and epidural anesthesia recorded by an anesthesia information management system. Anesthesiology. 2003;99(4):859-66.
[7] Klasen J, Junger A, Hartmann B, et al. Differing incidences of relevant hypotension with combined spinal-epidural anesthesia and spinal anesthesia. Anesth Analg. 2003;96(5):1491-5.
[8] Auroy Y, Narchi P, Messiah A, et al. Serious complications related to regional anesthesia: results of a prospective survey in France. Anesthesiology. 1997;87(3):479-86.
[9] Auroy Y, Benhamou D, Bargues L, et al. Major complications of regional anesthesia in France: The SOS Regional Anesthesia Hotline Service. Anesthesiology. 2002;97(5):1274-80. Erratum in: Anesthesiology. 2003;98(2):595.
[10] Kopp SL, Horlocker TT, Warner ME, et al. Cardiac arrest during neuraxial anesthesia: frequency and predisposing factors associated with survival. Anesth Analg. 2005 Mar;100(3):855-65, table of contents
[11] Pollard JB. Cardiac arrest during spinal anesthesia: common mechanisms and strategies for prevention. Anesth Analg. 2001;92(1):252-6.
[12] Morgan P. The role of vasopressors in the management of hypotension induced by spinal and epidural anaesthesia. Can J Anaesth. 1994;41(5 Pt 1):404-13.
[13] Krismer AC, Hogan QH, Wenzel V, et al. The efficacy of epinephrine or vasopressin for resuscitation during epidural anesthesia. Anesth Analg. 2001;93(3):734-42.
[14] Krismer AC, Dünser MW, Lindner KH, et al. Vasopressin during cardiopulmonary resuscitation and different shock states: a review of the literature. Am J Cardiovasc Drugs. 2006;6(1):51-68.
[15] Rosenberg JM, Wahr JA, Sung CH, et al. Coronary perfusion pressure during cardiopulmonary resuscitation after spinal anesthesia in dogs. Anesth Analg. 1996;82(1):84-7.
[16] Practice Guidelines for Obstetric Anesthesia: An Updated Report by the American Society of Anesthesiologists Task Force on Obstetric Anesthesia and the Society for Obstetric Anesthesia and Perinatology. Anesthesiology. 2016;124(2):270-300.
[17] Yamakage M, Kamada Y, Toriyabe M, et al. Changes in respiratory pattern and arterial blood gases during sedation with propofol or midazolam in spinal anesthesia. J Clin Anesth. 1999;11(5):375-9.
[18] Bailey PL, Rhondeau S, Schafer PG, et al. Dose-response pharmacology of intrathecal morphine in human volunteers. Anesthesiology. 1993;79(1):49-59; discussion 25A.
[19] Lin CJ, Williams BA. Postoperative nausea and vomiting in ambulatory regional anesthesia. Int Anesthesiol Clin. 2011;49(4):134-43.
[20] Borgeat A, Ekatodramis G, Schenker CA. Postoperative nausea and vomiting in regional anesthesia: a review. Anesthesiology. 2003;98(2):530-47.
[21] Nakata K, Mammoto T, Kita T, et al. Continuous epidural, not intravenous, droperidol inhibits pruritus, nausea, and vomiting during epidural morphine analgesia. J Clin Anesth. 2002;14(2):121-5.
[22] Mulroy MF, Norris MC, Liu SS. Safety steps for epidural injection of local anesthetics: review of the literature and recommendations. Anesth Analg. 1997;85(6):1346-56.
[23] Groban L,Dolinski SY. Different in cardiac toxicity among ropivacaine, levobupivacaine, bupivacaine, and lidocaine. Tech Reg Anesth Pain Manag. 2001;5:48-55.
[24] Di Gregorio G, Neal JM, Rosenquist RW, et al. Clinical presentation of local anesthetic systemic toxicity: a review of published cases, 1979 to 2009. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2010;35(2):181-7.
[25] Groban L. Central nervous system and cardiac effects from long-acting amide local anesthetic toxicity in the intact animal model. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2003;28(1):3-11.
[26] Neal JM, Bernards CM, Butterworth JF, et al. ASRA practice advisory on local anesthetic systemic toxicity. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2010;35(2):152-61.
[27] Hashimoto K, Hampl KF, Nakamura Y, et al. Epinephrine increases the neurotoxic potential of intrathecally administered lidocaine in the rat. Anesthesiology. 2001;94(5):876-81.
[28] Rigler ML, Drasner K, Krejcie TC, et al. Cauda equina syndrome after continuous spinal anesthesia. Anesth Analg. 1991;72(3):275-81.
[29] Rigler ML, Drasner K. Distribution of catheter-injected local anesthetic in a model of the subarachnoid space. Anesthesiology. 1991;75(4):684-92.
[30] Drasner K. Models for local anesthetic toxicity from continuous spinal anesthesia. Reg Anesth. 1993;18(6 Suppl):434-8.
[31] Drasner K. Chloroprocaine spinal anesthesia: back to the future? Anesth Analg. 2005;100(2):549-52.
[32] Kishimoto T, Bollen AW, Drasner K. Comparative spinal neurotoxicity of prilocaine and lidocaine. Anesthesiology. 2002;97(5):1250-3.
[33] Drasner K, Rigler ML. Repeat injection after a "failed spinal": at times, a potentially unsafe practice. Anesthesiology. 1991;75(4):713-4.
[34] Tsui BC, Malherbe S, Koller J, et al. Reversal of an unintentional spinal anesthetic by cerebrospinal lavage. Anesth Analg. 2004;98(2):434-6.
[35] Schneider M, Ettlin T, Kaufmann M, et al. Transient neurologic toxicity after hyperbaric subarachnoid anesthesia with 5% lidocaine. Anesth Analg. 1993;76(5):1154-7.
[36] Drasner K. Lidocaine spinal anesthesia: a vanishing therapeutic index? Anesthesiology. 1997;87(3):469-72.
[37] Pollock JE, Neal JM, Stephenson CA, et al. Prospective study of the incidence of transient radicular irritation in patients undergoing spinal anesthesia. Anesthesiology. 1996;84(6):1361-7.
[38] Pollock JE, Liu SS, Neal JM, et al. Dilution of spinal lidocaine does not alter the incidence of transient neurologic symptoms. Anesthesiology. 1999;90(2):445-50.
[39] Lindh A, Andersson AS, Westman L. Is transient lumbar pain after spinal anaesthesia with lidocaine influenced by early mobilisation? Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2001;45(3):290-3.
[40] Tong D, Wong J, Chung F, et al. Prospective study on incidence and functional impact of transient neurologic symptoms associated with 1% versus 5% hyperbaric lidocaine in short urologic procedures. Anesthesiology. 2003;98(2):485-94.
[41] Eberhart LH, Morin AM, Kranke P, et al. Transient neurologic symptoms after spinal anesthesia. A quantitative systematic overview (meta-analysis) of randomized controlled studies. Anaesthesist. 2002;51(7):539-46.
[42] Zaric D, Christiansen C, Pace NL, et al. Transient neurologic symptoms after spinal anesthesia with lidocaine versus other local anesthetics: a systematic review of randomized, controlled trials. Anesth Analg. 2005;100(6):1811-6.
[43] Freedman JM, Li DK, Drasner K, et al. Transient neurologic symptoms after spinal anesthesia: an epidemiologic study of 1,863 patients. Anesthesiology. 1998;89(3):633-41.
[44] Beardsley D, Holman S, Gantt R, et al. Transient neurologic deficit after spinal anesthesia: local anesthetic maldistribution with pencil point needles? Anesth Analg. 1995;81(2):314-20.
[45] Naveira FA, Copeland S, Anderson M, et al. Transient neurologic toxicity after spinal anesthesia, or is it myofascial pain? Two case reports. Anesthesiology. 1998;88(1):268-70.
[46] Oka S, Matsumoto M, Ohtake K, et al. The addition of epinephrine to tetracaine injected intrathecally sustains an increase in glutamate concentrations in the cerebrospinal fluid and worsens neuronal injury. Anesth Analg. 2001;93(4):1050-7.
[47] Denkler K. A comprehensive review of epinephrine in the finger: to do or not to do. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2001;108(1):114-24.
[48] Neal JM. Effects of epinephrine in local anesthetics on the central and peripheral nervous systems: Neurotoxicity and neural blood flow. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2003;28(2):124-34.
[49] Neal JM, Barrington MJ, Brull R, et al. The Second ASRA Practice Advisory on Neurologic Complications Associated With Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine: Executive Summary 2015. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2015;40(5):401-30.
[50] Moen V, Dahlgren N, Irestedt L. Severe neurological complications after central neuraxial blockades in Sweden 1990-1999. Anesthesiology. 2004;101(4):950-9.
[51] Vandermeulen EP, Van Aken H, Vermylen J. Anticoagulants and spinal-epidural anesthesia. Anesth Analg. 1994;79(6):1165-77.
[52] Horlocker TT, Wedel DJ. Neuraxial block and low-molecular-weight heparin: balancing perioperative analgesia and thromboprophylaxis. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 1998;23(6 Suppl 2):164-77.
[53] Schulman S, Beyth RJ, Kearon C, et al. Hemorrhagic complications of anticoagulant and thrombolytic treatment: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines (8th Edition). Chest. 2008;133(6 Suppl):257S-298S.
[54] Horlocker TT, Wedel DJ, Schroeder DR, et al. Preoperative antiplatelet therapy does not increase the risk of spinal hematoma associated with regional anesthesia. Anesth Analg. 1995;80(2):303-9.
[55] Lindgren L, Silvanto M, Scheinin B, et al. Erythrocyte counts in the cerebrospinal fluid associated with continuous spinal anaesthesia. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1995;39(3):396-400.
[56] Horlocker TT, Wedel DJ, Schlichting JL. Postoperative epidural analgesia and oral anticoagulant therapy. Anesth Analg. 1994;79(1):89-93.
[57] Horlocker TT, Wedel DJ, Rowlingson JC, et al. Regional anesthesia in the patient receiving antithrombotic or thrombolytic therapy: American Society of Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine Evidence-Based Guidelines (Third Edition). Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2010;35(1):64-101.
[58] Horlocker TT, Wedel DJ, Rowlingson JC, et al. Executive summary: regional anesthesia in the patient receiving antithrombotic or thrombolytic therapy: American Society of Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine Evidence-Based Guidelines (Third Edition). Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2010;35(1):102-5.
[59] Kane RE. Neurologic deficits following epidural or spinal anesthesia. Anesth Analg. 1981;60(3):150-61.
[60] Cook TM, Counsell D, Wildsmith JA. Royal College of Anaesthetists Third National Audit Project. Major complications of central neuraxial block: report on the Third National Audit Project of the Royal College of Anaesthetists. Br J Anaesth. 2009;102(2):179-90.
[61] Ready LB, Helfer D. Bacterial meningitis in parturients after epidural anesthesia. Anesthesiology. 1989;71(6):988-90.
[62] Strafford MA, Wilder RT, Berde CB. The risk of infection from epidural analgesia in children: a review of 1620 cases. Anesth Analg. 1995;80(2):234-8.
[63] Du Pen SL, Peterson DG, Williams A, et al. Infection during chronic epidural catheterization: diagnosis and treatment. Anesthesiology. 1990;73(5):905-9.
[64] Kilpatrick ME, Girgis NI. Meningitis: a complication of spinal anesthesia. Anesth Analg. 1983;62(5):513-5.
[65] Horlocker TT, McGregor DG, Matsushige DK, et al. A retrospective review of 4767 consecutive spinal anesthetics: central nervous system complications. Perioperative Outcomes Group. Anesth Analg. 1997;84(3):578-84.
[66] Darchy B, Forceville X, Bavoux E, et al. Clinical and bacteriologic survey of epidural analgesia in patients in the intensive care unit. Anesthesiology. 1996;85(5):988-98.
[67] Mahendru V, Bacon DR, Lema MJ. Multiple epidural abscesses and spinal anesthesia in a diabetic patient. Reg Anesth. 1994;19(1):66-8.
[68] Strong WE. Epidural abscess associated with epidural catheterization: a rare event? Report of two cases with markedly delayed presentation. Anesthesiology. 1991;74(5):943-6.
[69] Jakobsen KB, Christensen MK, Carlsson PS. Extradural anaesthesia for repeated surgical treatment in the presence of infection. Br J Anaesth. 1995;75(5):536-40.
[70] Feldman JM, Chapin-Robertson K, Turner J. Do agents used for epidural analgesia have antimicrobial properties? Reg Anesth. 1994;19(1):43-7.
[71] Del Curling O Jr, Gower DJ, McWhorter JM. Changing concepts in spinal epidural abscess: a report of 29 cases. Neurosurgery. 1990;27(2):185-92.
[72] Mamourian AC, Dickman CA, Drayer BP, et al. Spinal epidural abscess: three cases following spinal epidural injection demonstrated with magnetic resonance imaging. Anesthesiology. 1993;78(1):204-7.
[73] Shintani S, Tanaka H, Irifune A, et al. Iatrogenic acute spinal epidural abscess with septic meningitis: MR findings. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 1992;94(3):253-5.
[74] Harrington BE. Postdural puncture headache and the development of the epidural blood patch. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2004;29(2):136-63; discussion 135.
[75] Vandam LD, Dripps RD. Long-term follow-up of patients who received 10,098 spinal anesthetics; syndrome of decreased intracranial pressure (headache and ocular and auditory difficulties). J Am Med Assoc. 1956;161(7):586-91.
[76] Harrington BE, Schmitt AM. Meningeal (postdural) puncture headache, unintentional dural puncture, and the epidural blood patch: a national survey of United States practice. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2009;34(5):430-7.
[77] Choi PT, Galinski SE, Takeuchi L, et al. PDPH is a common complication of neuraxial blockade in parturients: a meta-analysis of obstetrical studies. Can J Anaesth. 2003;50(5):460-9.
[78] Paech M, Banks S, Gurrin L. An audit of accidental dural puncture during epidural insertion of a Tuohy needle in obstetric patients. Int J Obstet Anesth. 2001;10(3):162-7.
[79] Levine DN, Rapalino O. The pathophysiology of lumbar puncture headache. J Neurol Sci. 2001;192(1-2):1-8.
[80] Lybecker H, Djernes M, Schmidt JF. Postdural puncture headache (PDPH): onset, duration, severity, and associated symptoms. An analysis of 75 consecutive patients with PDPH. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1995;39(5):605-12.
[81] Aida S, Taga K, Yamakura T, et al. Headache after attempted epidural block: the role of intrathecal air. Anesthesiology. 1998;88(1):76-81.
[82] Chan TM, Ahmed E, Yentis SM, et al. Obstetric Anaesthetists' Association; NOAD Steering Group. Postpartum headaches: summary report of the National Obstetric Anaesthetic Database (NOAD) 1999. Int J Obstet Anesth. 2003;12(2):107-12.
[83] Lybecker H, Møller JT, May O, et al. Incidence and prediction of postdural puncture headache. A prospective study of 1021 spinal anesthesias. Anesth Analg. 1990 ;70(4):389-94.
[84] Wu CL, Rowlingson AJ, Cohen SR, et al. Gender and post-dural puncture headache. Anesthesiology. 2006;105(3):613-8.
[85] Vallejo MC. Anesthetic management of the morbidly obese parturient. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2007;20(3):175-80.
[86] Kuntz KM, Kokmen E, Stevens JC, et al. Post-lumbar puncture headaches: experience in 501 consecutive procedures. Neurology. 1992;42(10):1884-7.
[87] Faure E, Moreno R, Thisted R. Incidence of postdural puncture headache in morbidly obese parturients. Reg Anesth. 1994;19(5):361-3.
[88] Hannerz J. Postlumbar puncture headache and its relation to chronic tension-type headache. Headache. 1997;37(10):659-62.
[89] Amorim JA, Valença MM. Postdural puncture headache is a risk factor for new postdural puncture headache. Cephalalgia. 2008;28(1):5-8.
[90] Amorim JA, Gomes de Barros MV, Valença MM. Post-dural (post-lumbar) puncture headache: risk factors and clinical features. Cephalalgia. 2012;32(12):916-23.
[91] Blanche R, Eisenach JC, Tuttle R, et al. Previous wet tap does not reduce success rate of labor epidural analgesia. Anesth Analg. 1994;79(2):291-4.
[92] Halpern S, Preston R. Postdural puncture headache and spinal needle design. Metaanalyses. Anesthesiology. 1994;81(6):1376-83.
[93] Kovanen J, Sulkava R. Duration of postural headache after lumbar puncture: effect of needle size. Headache. 1986;26(5):224-6.
[94] Lambert DH, Hurley RJ, Hertwig L, et al. Role of needle gauge and tip configuration in the production of lumbar puncture headache. Reg Anesth. 1997;22(1):66-72.
[95] Reina MA, de Leon-Casasola OA, Lopez A, et al. An in vitro study of dural lesions produced by 25-gauge Quincke and Whitacre needles evaluated by scanning electron microscopy. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2000;25(4):393-402.
[96] Richman JM, Joe EM, Cohen SR, et al. Bevel direction and postdural puncture headache: a meta-analysis. Neurologist. 2006;12(4):224-8.
[97] Reina MA, Dittmann M, López Garcia A, et al. New perspectives in the microscopic structure of human dura mater in the dorsolumbar region. Reg Anesth. 1997;22(2):161-6.
[98] Seeberger MD, Kaufmann M, Staender S, et al. Repeated dural punctures increase the incidence of postdural puncture headache. Anesth Analg. 1996;82(2):302-5.
[99] Perlas A. Evidence for the use of ultrasound in neuraxial blocks. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2010;35(2 Suppl):S43-6.
[100] Halker RB, Demaerschalk BM, Wellik KE, et al. Caffeine for the prevention and treatment of postdural puncture headache: debunking the myth. Neurologist. 2007;13(5):323-7.
[101] Sudlow C, Warlow C. Epidural blood patching for preventing and treating post-dural puncture headache. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2002;(2):CD001791.Update in: Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010;(1):CD001791.
[102] Baraz R, Collis RE. The management of accidental dural puncture during labour epidural analgesia: a survey of UK practice. Anaesthesia. 2005;60(7):673-9.
[103] Schier R, Guerra D, Aguilar J, et al. Epidural space identification: a meta-analysis of complications after air versus liquid as the medium for loss of resistance. Anesth Analg. 2009;109(6):2012-21.
[104] Segal S, Arendt KW. A retrospective effectiveness study of loss of resistance to air or saline for identification of the epidural space. Anesth Analg. 2010 1;110(2):558-63.
[105] Duffy BL. "Don't turn the needle!". Anaesth Intensive Care. 1993;21(3):328-30.
[106] Simmons SW, Taghizadeh N, Dennis AT, et al. Combined spinal-epidural versus epidural analgesia in labour. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;10:CD003401.
[107] Boonmak P, Boonmak S. Epidural blood patching for preventing and treating post-dural puncture headache. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010;(1):CD001791.Update in: Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;11:CD001791.
[108] Sharma A, Cheam E. Acupuncture in the management of post-partum headache following neuraxial analgesia. Int J Obstet Anesth. 2009;18(4):417-9.
[109] Choi A, Laurito CE, Cunningham FE. Pharmacologic management of postdural puncture headache. Ann Pharmacother. 1996;30(7-8):831-9.
[110] Camann WR, Murray RS, Mushlin PS, et al. Effects of oral caffeine on postdural puncture headache. A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Anesth Analg. 1990;70(2):181-4.
[111] Kroin JS, Nagalla SK, Buvanendran A, et al. The mechanisms of intracranial pressure modulation by epidural blood and other injectates in a postdural puncture rat model. Anesth Analg. 2002 ;95(2):423-9.
[112] Vakharia SB, Thomas PS, Rosenbaum AE, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging of cerebrospinal fluid leak and tamponade effect of blood patch in postdural puncture headache. Anesth Analg. 1997;84(3):585-90.
[113] Darvish B, Gupta A, Alahuhta S, et al. Management of accidental dural puncture and post-dural puncture headache after labour: a Nordic survey. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2011;55(1):46-53.
[114] Banks S, Paech M, Gurrin L. An audit of epidural blood patch after accidental dural puncture with a Tuohy needle in obstetric patients. Int J Obstet Anesth. 2001;10(3):172-6.
[115] Safa-Tisseront V, Thormann F, Malassiné P, et al. Effectiveness of epidural blood patch in the management of post-dural puncture headache. Anesthesiology. 2001;95(2):334-9.
[116] Sandesc D1, Lupei MI, Sirbu C, et al. Conventional treatment or epidural blood patch for the treatment of different etiologies of post dural puncture headache. Acta Anaesthesiol Belg. 2005;56(3):265-9.
[117] Vilming ST, Kloster R, Sandvik L. When should an epidural blood patch be performed in postlumbar puncture headache? A theoretical approach based on a cohort of 79 patients. Cephalalgia. 2005;25(7):523-7.
[118] Martin R, Jourdain S, Clairoux M, et al. Duration of decubitus position after epidural blood patch. Can J Anaesth. 1994;41(1):23-5.
[119] Hebl JR, Horlocker TT, Chantigian RC, et al. Epidural anesthesia and analgesia are not impaired after dural puncture with or without epidural blood patch. Anesth Analg. 1999;89(2):390-4.
[120] Neal JM, Bernards CM, Hadzic A, et al. ASRA Practice Advisory on Neurologic Complications in Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2008;33(5):404-15.
[121] Guegan Y, Fardoun R, Launois B, et al. Spinal cord compression by extradural fat after prolonged corticosteroid therapy. J Neurosurg. 1982;56(2):267-9.
[122] Loblaw DA, Laperriere NJ. Emergency treatment of malignant extradural spinal cord compression: an evidence-based guideline. J Clin Oncol. 1998;16(4):1613-24.
[123] Lewandrowski KU, McLain RF, Lieberman I, et al. Cord and cauda equina injury complicating elective orthopedic surgery. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2006;31(9):1056-9.
[124] Rathmell JP, Roland T, DuPen SL. Management of pain associated with metastatic epidural spinal cord compression: use of imaging studies in planning epidural therapy. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2000;25(2):113-6.
[125] Neal JM. Anatomy and pathophysiology of spinal cord injury associated with regional anesthesia and pain medicine. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2008;33(5):423-34.
[126] Deinsberger W, Christophis P, Jödicke A, et al. Somatosensory evoked potential monitoring during positioning of the patient for posterior fossa surgery in the semisitting position. Neurosurgery. 1998;43(1):36-40; discussion 40-2.
[127] Sorenson EJ. Neurological injuries associated with regional anesthesia. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2008;33(5):442-8.
[128] Lawton MT, Porter RW, Heiserman JE, et al. Surgical management of spinal epidural hematoma: relationship between surgical timing and neurological outcome. J Neurosurg. 1995;83(1):1-7.
[129] Blacker DJ, Wijdicks EF, Ramakrishna G. Resolution of severe paraplegia due to aortic dissection after CSF drainage. Neurology. 2003;61(1):142-3.
[130] Tiesenhausen K, Amann W, Koch G, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid drainage to reverse paraplegia after endovascular thoracic aortic aneurysm repair. J Endovasc Ther. 2000;7(2):132-5.